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The Road To 1776
“I am not an advocate for frequent changes in laws and constitutions, but laws and institutions must go hand in hand with the progress of the human mind. As that becomes more developed, more enlightened, as new discoveries are made, new truths discovered and manners and opinions change, with the change of circumstances, institutions must advance also to keep pace with the times. We might as well require a man to wear still the coat which fitted him when a boy as a civilized society to remain ever under the regimen of their barbarous ancestors.”
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— THOMAS JEFFERSON (1816)
Third President Of The United States
1. Ancient Foundations
Early order. City-states, codes. Roots of governance, shaping future nations, including America
4. The Enlightenment
Locke, Rousseau. Rights, contracts. Revolution's spark. Ideas shaping America's core.
2. Classical Influences
Greek demos, Roman laws. Republics, rights. Founders' ideals, democracy's ancient seeds.
5. Colonial Experiences
Self-rule, tensions grow. Revolution nears. Colonial acts, liberty's fight begins.
3. Medieval Changes
Feudal rule, nation-states rise. Magna Carta, limits on power. Liberty's slow dawn.
6. From Ancient to America
Declaration, war. Constitution's birth. Freedom forged. America's founding, democracy's rise.
The Odyssey of Democracy
“The journey is the thing.” — Homer, The Odyssey, 8th Century BCE
Influences for American Democracy
The United States’ Founding Fathers were influenced by various historical, philosophical, and political ideas that shaped the development of American democracy. Some key influences on the Founding Fathers include Greco-Roman Democracy, British Political Tradition, Enlightenment Thinkers, Colonial Experience, and the American Revolution. Athens and Rome are said to be the birthplace of democracy, so we will begin there to understand their impact on our Declaration of Independence and Constitution.
508 BCE to 338 BCE
Greek Democracy
The Mother of Democracy
“Freedom is the sure possession of those alone who have the courage to defend it.”
— Pericles, 450 BCE
"dÄ“mokratía" (δημοκρατία)
"rule by the people"
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The development of Athenian democracy unfolded in stages, beginning with Solon, a prominent statesman and lawgiver who served as archon leader around 594 BCE during a time of social unrest. Solon laid crucial groundwork for democracy by implementing reforms that reduced the power of the aristocracy. He divided citizens into classes based on wealth, abolished debt bondage, and expanded political participation beyond those of noble birth.
Building on Solon’s foundation, Cleisthenes emerged as another key figure in Athenian democracy. He is often credited with solidifying its democratic principles around 508 BCE. Cleisthenes introduced significant reforms that redistributed political power from the aristocracy to ordinary citizens. He created new local units of governance, and established political organization that encouraged increased citizen engagement in the political process.
A major aspect of Cleisthenes' reforms was the establishment of the Council of 500. This council was composed of 500 citizen representatives, chosen by lot, who were responsible for preparing the agenda for the the popular Assembly and overseeing the city's day-to-day affairs. The Assembly was the principal law-making body of Athens, where all adult male citizens over 20 years of age could debate and vote on laws, policies, and important decisions, including declarations of war.
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Cleisthenes' system is widely recognized as the formal beginning of democracy in Athens, characterized by active citizen participation. This model has provided the foundational concepts and terminology of democracy that continue to influence Western political thought today. ​
After approximately 200 years of growth, Athenian democracy was severely weakened by the long and destructive Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE), resulting in economic and military decline, internal conflict, and social unrest. Taking advantage of this weakness, the kingdom of Macedon, led by Philip II and Alexander the Great, conquered Greece, decisively ending Athens' independence and its era of democratic flourishing by 338 BCE.
It's uncertain if Athens could have entirely prevented the Macedonian conquest. Still, stronger alliances, better military readiness, more internal unity, and skillful diplomacy might have delayed it or offered stronger resistance.
Examining the rise and eventual decline of Athenian democracy offers valuable historical lessons on the challenges and vulnerabilities inherent in democratic systems, highlighting the importance of actively addressing issues such as corruption, political polarization, civic disengagement, and external threats to ensure their long-term survival and stability.
509 BCE to 27 BCE
Roman Republic
The Eternal City
“Not to know what has been transacted in former times is to be always a child. If no use is made of the labours of past ages, the world must remain always in the infancy of knowledge.”
— Marcus Tullius Cicero, Roman Stateman, 63 BCE
Rome, established in 753 BCE, was initially a monarchy ruled by seven kings, beginning with Romulus. These kings served as the city’s religious and political leaders, wielding significant and largely unchecked power.
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In 509 BCE, Lucius Junius Brutus, a descendant of the royal family, led the rebellion against the increasingly tyrannical rule of Tarquin the Proud. Following the expulsion of the last king, Brutus became one of the first consuls, ushering in a new form of government founded on principles of liberty and a strong constitution, though political rights were primarily held by certain classes of citizens.
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The Roman Republic endured for over 500 years before its gradual decline, fueled by interconnected issues such as political corruption, social unrest, extensive military conflicts resulting from overexpansion, and the growing influence of powerful individuals like Julius Caesar, a renowned Roman commander and statesman. Caesar’s remarkable military successes brought him considerable fame, wealth, and the loyalty of a substantial army.
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In 49 BCE, Caesar famously declared, “Alea iacta est” (The die has been cast) and crossed the Rubicon River with his army. This act defied the orders of the Roman Senate and ignited a civil war against his political rivals. Emerging victorious, Caesar was appointed dictator, eventually becoming dictator for life.
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However, Julius Caesar’s ambition and consolidation of power led to his assassination by a group of Roman senators on March 15, 44 BCE (the Ides of March), who sought to restore the Republic.
Following a period of intense power struggles, Octavian, Caesar’s adopted son, ultimately prevailed and became the first Roman Emperor, known as Augustus. This marked the definitive end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire.
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This historical trajectory serves as a cautionary tale, highlighting the potential dangers of unchecked power and underscoring the critical importance of establishing and maintaining robust mechanisms to safeguard against tyranny and preserve democratic institutions.
1215 CE
The Magna Carta
The Magna Carta was signed in England and established principles of limited government, individual rights, and due process, which have influenced democratic governance worldwide.
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“No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled, or deprived of his standing in any other way, nor will we proceed with force against him, or send others to do so, except by the lawful judgment of his equals or by the law of the land.”
The vibrant, albeit limited, democracies of ancient Greece and the representative Republic of Rome, despite their eventual declines by 338 BCE and 44 BCE respectively, left an indelible mark on Western political thought. For nearly eighteen centuries following the fall of the Roman Republic, the ideal of widespread self-governance largely vanished from the world stage, replaced by the dominance of monarchies, empires, feudal systems, and various forms of aristocratic or oligarchic rule.
The Magna Carta in England (1215) represented a significant, albeit aristocratic-focused, step towards limiting monarchical power and establishing certain rights, planting a seed for later challenges to absolute rule.
17th & 18th Centuries
Age of Enlightenment
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a key Enlightenment figure, championed the concept of the social contract and the general will in his work The Social Contract (1762), asserting that legitimate political authority derives from the consent of the governed. He encapsulated the Enlightenment's critique of existing power structures in his famous opening line:
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'Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains,'
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It was not until the Age of Enlightenment, a powerful intellectual and cultural movement centered in Europe, particularly in Great Britain, France, and the American colonies during the 17th and 18th Centuries, that the core principles of popular sovereignty, individual rights, and the rejection of traditional authority reignited the pursuit of democratic governance.
Thinkers like John Locke in England, whose Two Treatises of Government (1689) argued for natural rights to life, liberty, and property and the right of the people to alter or abolish a government that violates these rights, profoundly influenced the American revolutionaries. As Locke stated, 'The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom.'
In France, Baron de Montesquieu advocated for the separation of powers in his influential work The Spirit of the Laws (1748), warning against tyranny by concentrating power in one entity. His idea that 'constant experience shows us that every man invested with power is apt to abuse it... To prevent this abuse, it is necessary, 1 from the very nature of things, that power should 2 be a check to power' became a cornerstone of the U.S. Constitution's structure.
This intellectual ferment, drawing inspiration from classical ideals and grappling with centuries of autocratic rule across Europe, finally culminated in the extraordinary emergence of the United States of America in 1776. This marked a truly revolutionary moment, representing the first large-scale, successful establishment of a republic founded on principles of democracy and representation after a vast expanse of time dominated by monarchical power across the globe.
From Greece to Rome to England in 1215, the odyssey of democracy, seemingly dormant for so long, embarked on a radical new chapter in the American experiment, heavily informed by these Enlightenment ideals
The Dawn of a New Era:
The Declaration of
Independence
July 4th, 1776
At the close of the Constitutional Convention, Benjamin Franklin was asked what kind of government they had created. His famous reply: "A republic, if you can keep it."
Franklin's response highlights that the success of American self-governance depends on the ongoing vigilance and participation of its citizens.
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The Declaration of Independence, adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, was a revolutionary document born from escalating grievances against British rule.
For years, the American colonies had protested taxation without representation, restrictive trade policies, and perceived infringements upon their fundamental liberties by the British Crown and Parliament. Faced with a king who, in their view, had established an "absolute Tyranny," the colonists felt compelled to articulate their inherent right to self-governance.
In a bold and unprecedented move,
the Declaration of Independence proclaimed truths that had never before been so explicitly and universally asserted in a founding document, declaring "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal," a radical assertion of inherent rights unseen in any other government's charter at the time.
This revolutionary spirit continued with the United States Constitution, whose very preamble, "We the People," marked an unprecedented declaration that governmental authority derived directly from the citizenry. This foundational principle established America as a truly unique nation – technically a constitutional federal republic underpinned by strong democratic norms of participation.
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"The spirit of democracy cannot be established overnight.
It has to be incorporated into the very being of a nation."
- Eleanor Roosevelt
Evolving and Progressing to Something Better
Understanding the cyclical nature of history is crucial, as it reveals recurring themes in the evolution of societies and their governance structures. By examining the rise and fall of civilizations over the past ten thousand years, we can identify patterns in human behavior, political systems, and social dynamics. These insights not only connect us with our past but also inform our strategies for navigating contemporary challenges.
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From primitive cave dwellings to organized settlements, and eventually to bustling cities, human society has evolved through various forms of governance—ranging from monarchies and aristocracies to oligarchies and democracies. This continuous journey toward refining governance reflects humanity's enduring quest for justice, stability, and self-determination.
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Central to this transformation is the method of acquiring political power, whether through electoral competition or hereditary succession. These mechanisms shape the philosophy of governance and have profound implications for foreign policy decisions. By recognizing these historical patterns, we equip ourselves with the knowledge needed to inform and guide current and future approaches to American foreign policy.
Ancient Civilization References
This list will serve as useful points of historical reference for our podcast conversations.
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Kuku Yalanji people (circa 50,000 BCE to present) – lived in Australia (Modern-day Australia)
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Native Americans (circa 13,000 BCE to present) – lived in North America (Modern-day North America)
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Ancient Japanese civilization (circa 11,000 BCE to present) – lived in Jomon (Modern-day Japan)
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Indus Valley civilization (circa 7000 BCE to 1300 BCE) – lived in South Asia (Modern-day India and Pakistan)
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Sumerian civilization (circa 4100 BCE to 1750 BCE) – lived in Mesopotamia (Modern-day Iraq)
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Chinese civilization (circa 4000 BCE to present) – lived in Huaxia (Modern-day People’s Republic of China)
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Ancient Egyptian civilization (circa 3100 to 332 BCE) – lived in Nile River Valley (Modern-day Egypt)
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Hindu civilization (circa 1900 BCE to today) -lived in Indian subcontinent (Modern-day India)
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Judaism (Abraham born circa 1813 BCE) – lived in Canaan (Ancient Israel) – (Modern-day Israel)
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Mayan civilization (circa 1500 BCE to 950 CE) – lived in Mesoamerica (Modern-day Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, El Salvador)
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Ancient Greek civilization (circa 1200 BCE to 323 BCE) – lived in Mediterranean region (Modern-day Greece)
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Roman civilization (circa 753 BCE to 476 CE) – lived in Mediterranean region (Modern-day Italy)
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Persian civilization (circa 550 BCE to 331 CE) – Balkan Peninsula to the Indus River Valley (Modern-day Iran)
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Buddhist civilization (500 BCE to today) – lived in India (Modern-day Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka)
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Christianity (Jesus born circa 6 BCE) – lived in Nazareth (Ancient Israel) – (Modern-day majority of 157 countries and territories)
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Byzantine civilization (circa 395 CE to 1453 CE) – Constantinople (Modern-day Istanbul, Turkey)
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Islam (Muhammed born circa 570 CE) – lived in Hejaz (Mecca, Saudi Arabia) – (Modern-day 56 countries in the Middle East, Asia, and North Africa)
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Viking civilization (circa 800 CE to 1050 CE) – Scandinavia and beyond (Modern-day Nordic countries)
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Inca civilization (circa 1200 CE to 1533 CE) – Andes region (Modern-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Colombia)
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Mongol civilization (circa 1206 CE to 1368 CE) – Central Asia and beyond (Modern-day Mongolia, parts of China, Russia)
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Ancient Maori civilization (circa 1250 CE to present) – Aotearoa (Modern-day New Zealand
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Aztec civilization (circa 1325 CE to 1521 CE) – Mesoamerica, Southern part of North America (Modern-day Mexico)
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American civilization (circa 1565 CE to present) – Colonial America (Modern-day United States of America)